Sociological Concept Womens Social Standing

Runaways Caught in the Rye Lost in the System essays

Runaways Caught in the Rye Lost in the System essays The novel by J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye portrays a disaffected youth named Holden Caulfield whom has recently been expelled from his preparatory school for his poor academic performance. Caulfield has also failed to socially thrive within the narrow confines of his school. Thus, Caulfield must return home to his parent's apartment, but not before he essentially runs amuck for several days in New York City, living in a transient fashion. However, he is not relegated to the street. Caulfield is of an affluent Manhattan family, as his status in preparatory school attests to. His adventures revolve around him attending swanky nightclubs and staying overnight in motels and talkingand just talkingto prostitutes. Eventually, Caulfield must return home, mainly because he desires see his beloved younger sister Phoebe, before he is shipped off to a mental institution, a status he notes at the beginning and the end of the In some ways, however, Caulfield is not so different from many young runaways today of very different socioeconomic status. Although he is from a wealthy family, he feels a strong sense of moral and social alienation from his parents as well as the peer groups of his generation that he is exposed to. He frequently dissociates from his outer lying problems, such as the fact that he is flunking out of school, rather than attempts to actively engage with them. Holden prefers to live in a world of his own internal creation, rather than the real world' in a strategy that is anything but psychologically and socially healthy. Although heterosexualmany young runaways are gay, lesbian, or transgenderHolden's assurance in his sexuality seems confused. This is evident of his contempt and conflict his more conventionally sexed and confident male roommates. His behavior towards the pr...

Unification of Germany and Italy in the 19th century Assignment

Unification of Germany and Italy in the 19th century - Assignment Example During the year 1848 Europe was taken over by the democratic revolution and the German representatives in the unification were King Wilhem I (King of Prussian), who wanted to increase the strength of the army and elect a new Prime Minister. The second leader was Otto von Bismarck who was the Prime Minister, who had no room of idealism in his regime and was the leader of realism. During the year 1866 and 1877 there was a seven week war which provoked the Austria to call a war on Prussia, in which Prussia were successful and they took control over the northern Germany, which was followed by the Franco-Prussian War in which the Prussian army took over the northern France and took 80,000 French Prisoners. This war the final stages into the unification of the Germany and the southern region on accepted the Prussian as the leaders. There were many reasons that lead to World War I, few of the reasons were long pending and few of other arose near the war that made the decision more affirmati ve. Few of the long reason that forced the war was the Rise of Militarism, this was in result of the increase of use of power by the European in the late 18th Century. The Europe started to believe that the military powers were one of the most feasible and desirable reasons to resolve the increasing hostile and fragile political conditions in the world. Another long term reason that caused the World War I was The Arms Race, the excess use of military caused imbalance in the powers; this led to the innovation of technology with respect.

American Foriegn Relations 1964-1968 with China Research Paper

American Foriegn Relations 1964-1968 with China - Research Paper Example restrictions on travel to and trade with the China mainland; 6) the U.S. response to French recognition of the People's Republic of China; and 7) U.S. policy concerning Tibet.1 Lyndon B. Johnson was the president of the United States during the above-stated period and the official policy towards the Peoples Republic of China was a continuation of the policies of the previous governments. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 The US had not yet recognized the Communist government in China and it was instead supporting the Nationalist government run by Chiang Kai-shek which was stationed in Taiwan. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 A ban was imposed by the US on its citizen from travelling to and trading with the Peoples Republic of China. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 America was also giving support to the Chiang kai-shek government to retain its seat in the United Nations. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 But at this juncture, it was becoming evident that the US will have to recognize the new communist government in China in the near future as the communists had been consolidating their influence over the country. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 On October 16, 1964, when China carried out its first nuclear explosion, it was a great matter of concern for the US. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 The US did not see China yet militarily as a nuclear threat but the very fact that China had entered the nuclear group of nations was quite alarming for the US. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 The US went on a busy mission to convince its public as well as its allies that Chinese nuclear tests were not a potential threat. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 The then US Secretary of State, Dean Rusk had even recommended prior to Chinese nuclear test that â€Å"should China test, the United States should consider providing India and Japan with nuclear weapons.† BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 Meanwhile, in the US diplomatic circles, a demand for change was felt regarding the US opposition to the UN recognition of Peoples Republic of China. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 In 1964, the US General Assembly concluded with a tie vote regarding the issue and a resolution stating that China’s inclusion into the UN needs to be a decision with two-thirds majority was passed only with a very nominal margin of votes. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 Giving recognition to both the Peoples Republic

Reports Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Reports - Essay Example The case study is supposed to help managers make working strategies that go beyond forecasting. According to the authors, managers have to do more than forecasting when coming up with new strategies (Kaplan & Orlikowski, 2014). After eight months of studying the strategy making process in CommCorp, the authors argue that strategy is more than just forecasting. The authors argue that is important for managers consider the past, present and the future of the company when coming up with strategies. By interpreting and reinterpreting the past, future and the present of the company managers can be able to come up with new workable strategy narratives that can steer their companies from uncertainty. The authors argue that strategy making does not revolve around making accurate forecasting. This is due to the fact the future is unpredictable. Secondly, it is imporant to consider the past when coming up with new strategies. The past can help predict the future and ensure that there is continuity from the past. Thirdly, managers should focus on coming up with a strategy narratives that will help the company in times of uncertainty. This means that the narrative should not be perfect but rather be good enough for no w. Lastly, breakdowns in the strategy making process should not be considered as a failure but rather a way of provoking thinking that will produce workable narratives (Kaplan & Orlikowski, 2014). The backbone of any company revolves around making workable strategies whenever when faced with uncertainty (Hill, & Jones, 2012). Managers have to know and understand how to come up with workable strategies during these crucial moments. The article offers priceless information on how managers can come up with strategy narratives. Backed with evidence from a case study of CommCorp, the author lays a foundation on which managers can use to come up with workable

The Monopolist And Profit Maximization Economics Essay

The Monopolist And Profit Maximization Economics Essay Monopoly is a single seller and many buyers. There is no difference between firm and industry and monopoly form as imperfect market. Besides that, monopoly is the sole provider of goods and services. 2.1 Characteristics of Monopoly There are some characteristics of monopoly market. One seller and large number of buyers The one of monopoly characteristic is one seller and large number of buyers is large and the size of each firm is very small. The number of buyers also large and this firm cannot influence the market price. So basically, individual firm does not bother about the reactions of the firm. Besides that, adjusts its sale to earn maximum profits and the price given under perfect competition. The demand of individual buyers relative to the total demand. And so small that cannot influence the price of the product by his individual action. Product has no lose substitutes The second characteristics is, product differentiation, there is product are close substitutes but not perfect substitutes. Its means, products are alike but not equal. For an example, Colgate toothpaste is slightly different from Darlie toothpaste. Otherwise, similarly dettol soap is different from life buoy soap. But if the buyers can find any substitutes for toothpaste and soap means, may be the differences is real or imaginary but its create attachments. Consumers prefer one product to another, under monopolistic competition. Monopoly cannot exist if there is a competition or any substitute product because consumers or buyers could not find any replacement for the product. Restriction on the entry of new firm. The third characteristics of the monopoly are, firm under monopolistic are easy to entry and leave the industry. Barriers are not entry is natural or legal restriction that restricts the entry of new firms into the industry. Hence, a firm has legal control over other firms. There is restricting competition in the market. Advertising In monopoly market, advertising is depends to the product sold. If the product is good and services means, the monopoly needs make advertisement to inform consumers on the goods. So that, its try to establish goods of its own products. By the advertising, consumers can know their selling costs. However, if the products are not luxury goods such as water service, electricity service, and local telephone service, then the seller no need to create any advertisement. This is because a lot of the buyers know that where are the places and locations to get and purchase these few products. 2.1.1 Diagram The Monopolist and Profit Maximization In the diagram, the quantity of produced and price charged has own control for both of it. That also, entire demand curve for goods and services produced. So that, it will facing a downward slopping demand curve in the diagram. Equivalently, a monopoly never operates in the inelastic portion of its demand curve. Monopolist Profit Maximization http://i.investopedia.com/inv/articles/site/micro3.12.gif What happens if the monopolist later faces a demand curve such as D1? In that case, the monopolist cannot cover costs and will go out of business. 2.1.2 Demand, Marginal Revenue, and Elasticity http://cyro.cs-territories.com/asa2_economics/unit4/images/monopolisticcompetitionlongrun1.png In the diagram, demand curve is elastic as there many firms. So that, there is lack of close substitutes. The profits shown as abnormal where the shaded area and competitor the short run. As shown in the graph above, a monopolist facing demand curve D0 will produce quantity Q0 and the price charged will be equal to P0. 2.1.3 Conclusion All in all, monopoly have four characteristics of structure. Besides that, monopoly is the sole provider of goods and services. The monopoly market is still solely by mutually beneficial exchange of firm exist and many. 3.0 Difference between Perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and monopoly Perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly have their own respectively features. Their characteristic of their four markets is not same. In monopoly, the market structure in which there is only one producer and seller for a product. Oligopoly is only few firms that make up an industry and select group of firms has control over the price. Monopoly and oligopoly has high barriers to entry. Then, monopoly structure is opposite for perfect competition. Perfect competition are has many buyers and sellers, many products that are similar in nature and there are many substitutes. 3.1 Differentiate between perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly 3.1.1 Perfect competition Perfect competition is a market is a possible market where competition is at its greatest in possible level. The products are homogeneous and seller can easily enter and exit from their market. Number of seller and buyers Perfect competition is very large numbers of firms in the market. Perfect competition also existence of large number of buyers and sellers. There is no dominating firm and all firms are usually small and are price takers, because the individual sales volume is relatively small compared to market volume. The price does not change and there is no discernible change in the quantity exchanged in the market. Unrestricted to entry and exist The second characteristics of perfect competition is there are unrestricted on the entry and exist of both buyers and sellers. A firm can easily enter into perfect competition market and leave the market at any time, if that firm cannot continue the firm. The absence of such barriers does not affect the prices, and there is always a substitute for suppliers, who enters and leaves if, wants. If any losses occur the firm will exist the industry without any reason. This is important to understand the free entry and free exist is possible in the long-time firm. Homogeneous product There another condition of perfect competition is homogeneous product that is a product offer for sale by seller. It must be goods offers for sale and perfect substitutes of one another seller. One firm cannot differentiate the same products sold in the industry because buyers can identify the difference in terms of colors, quality and packing. There is mean, even though the products are same in nature but there is difference in terms of quality. Seller cannot raise the price above the prevailing price or lower the price. Homogeneity of product has an important implication for the market if products of different seller. Besides that, buyers not care who they buy from, as long as the price is same. Maximum profits In the perfect competition, profit maximization determine by the quantity of product they sell. The marginal cost by the product of a single unit of the product is equal to the marginal revenue. Total revenue and total cost approach are the profit maximization. When the cost is lowest, and then only can be maximum profit. 3.1.2 Monopolistic competition The concept monopolistic competition is more realistic than perfect competition. Monopolistic competition market each firm has its own price policy. The most things from another thing feature of monopolistic competition are the products of various firms are not identified. But they are close substitutes for each others. In the case, monopolistic and perfect competition is characteristic by the existence of sellers. The firms do not produce perfect substitutes. Otherwise, each firm has a small percentage of the total monopolistic market and thus has limited control over market price. Product differentiates. Under monopolistic competition, product differentiation may entail physical or qualities differences in the products by their selves. There output product are differentiated between which are relatively close substitutes for each other. So that, that product prices cannot be very much different from each other. Product differentiated by location, services, designs, and brand names. The firms in monopolistic competition will differentiated their products and make them more appealing to the customers in order to maximize their profits. 3.1.3 Oligopoly In an  oligopoly, there are only a few firms that make up an industry. This select group of firms has control over the price and, like a monopoly; an oligopoly has high barriers to entry. Main characteristic of oligopoly is interdependence of firms in the industry. Sum more, in the oligopoly market, all firms can earn abnormal profits in the long run because, the entry of new firms are difficult. Oligopoly is not like monopolistic market, because if firms change the prices or output, it has noticed effects on the sales and profits of its competitors. Small number of large firm Approaches from small number of large firm are each which is relatively large compared to the overall size of market. Under oligopoly, few firms control the overall industry and there is no specific number of firms that must control the market. Homogeneous of differentiated product Under oligopoly, when a product sold that can be either a homogeneous or a differentiated product. For example, petroleum, steel and etc. and also, oligopoly focus on goods sold. Basically, people have different wants needs and thus enjoy variety. Such as, automobiles and computers. Barriers no entry Barriers no entry is similar to monopoly market. The oligopoly firms will restrict new entry into the market. In this industry, a few huge firms own most of the available iron ore, a necessary raw material for steel production. Once the new firms are out of the market, there large firms reduce the production will increase the price. In these cases, barriers to entry are low, and it also as small investment may be required to enter the market structure. 3.1.4 Monopoly Monopoly can be considered opposite of perfect competition. It is a market form in which there are only sellers. Even though, there are many factors to rise up monopoly market. There is only one supplier; and the demand curve that individual firms face is the market demand curve. A monopoly firm is deemed to have considerable control over the price of its product. In the case a monopoly can also arise if a company owns the entire supply of a necessary material needed to produce a product. 3.1.5 Conclusion Characteristic Perfect Competition Monopolistic Competition Oligopoly Monopoly Number of firms Very Many Many Few One Type of Product Homogeneous Differentiated Homogeneous / Differentiated Only product of its kind (no close substitute) Ease of entry Very easy Relatively easy Not Easy Impossible Price Setting power Nil (Price taker) Somewhat Limited Absolute (Price Maker) Non Price Competition None Considerable Considerable for a differentiated oligopoly Somewhat Productive efficiency Highly efficient Less Efficient Less Efficient Inefficient Long run profits 0 0 Positive High Examples Doesnt Exist; agriculture close Fast Food, retails stores, cosmetics Cars, Steel, soft drinks, cereals Small town newspaper, rural gas station 4.0 Conclusion and recommendations In the whole assignments, I learned about microeconomics subject ant it is a very important subject to whom taking business course. The subject teaches every student about business skills and helps to learn about business knowledge of economics. In first question, I know the characteristics of monopoly. I also learn the differentiated of monopoly in the markets. The second question is about the differentiate between perfect competition, monopolistic competition, monopoly and oligopoly markets. From this question, I learned about the four characteristics of the markets such as the four markets are not same all the times. In spite of this assignment, I thank to my lecturer and coordinator for guide us to do this introduction to business. I appreciate from this assignment that I can know well about the business chapters. Appendix

Teenage Binge Drinking in the United Kingdom :: essays research papers

Binge drinking is becoming ridiculous in the UK. I believe that the real consequences from binge drinking is the amount of violence caused by it on the streets. I believe the majority of people binge drinking and causing violence are young adults and the groups of teenagers also known as charvers. This paper is mainly going to express my views on the teenagers (charvers) binge drinking as I am also a teenager and withhold alot of knowledge about these people. Charvers are also the teenagers that bully people at school, steal cars, fight in large numbers and binge drink through out the week and look foward to drinking and fighting on the weekends. These people also think that the way to build their repuatation is to be a rebel, set them selves about, fight, pay no respect to anyone but people who supply them with stuff they want and cause trouble. These teenagers are the group of teenagers normally to wear hoodies, caps, berghauses, and took their trousers into their socks. They dress like this as they believe doing so will make people recognise what time of person they are also allowing them to gain a 'better' reputation. So, these are the people i feel commit the most binge drinking and violence resulting from it. As i have mentioned they enjoy fighting and binge drinking for different reasons. Therefore i believe there should deffinetly be more strict punishments when teenagers are court drinking on the streets. At the moment teenagers found drinkin have their names taking or are taking home. For many teenagers (charvers)this doesnt bother them as it builds their reputation and for them to be such an uncaring person they normally have incaring parents which means a visit from the police isn't 'really bad'.

Challenges Faced by First Year University Students

University life can be a great experience. It can be fun and educational and, on the other hand, full of hardships. First-year students at university face a lot of challenges. These challenges can be divided into groups of which three are making adjustments, security and being lost. First-year students have to make a lot of adjustments. Students face difficulty in adjusting to a completely new lifestyle. University life is totally different from living at home and going to high school. For example, many students are living alone and adjusting to being alone is difficult. Furthermore, students get a lot of freedom since they are renting or living alone. They have to adjust otherwise they will find themselves moving adrift from their studies. Too much freedom also leads to getting involved with wrong crowds. Thus, the new way of life is difficult to adjust to. The learning methods used at university is different from what it used to be at high school. Students find it difficult to fit in to this learning environment. At university, students have to attend lectures whereby a lecturer comes and discusses everything from the front. Students also have to do a lot by themselves, which they find difficult since they are used to the spoon feeding which they received at high school. Study workload is also immense therefore students have to stick to a strict timetable. Therefore, learning methods are difficult to adapt to for first-year students. Furthermore, adapting to the immense workload and influence from outside university is also difficult. Students have to study for longer hours to keep up and for their progress, and at the same time do household choirs, which is even more when the students are living away from their parents. Other external influences such as peer pressure, partying with friends and socializing also affects a first-year student’s life and studies. Thus, first-year students find it challenging to cope up with the workload. Security is one of the major needs of all individuals and even more so for a student. Parental support and guidance is one major need for all first-year students. Many students live away from their homes and parents and therefore, lack social security. Many students are renting with other students and since they are first-year students, they find it hard since hey are not used to this form of lifestyle. Moreover, without any parent or any other r elder to guide them, first-years drift away from their path into doing wrong things. Other students who live in hostels have some level of control instilled by the hostel but it is not equal to the guidance which a parent could provide. Thus, living away from parents is a major hindrance and challenge for first-year students. Financial security is another challenge for first-year students. Money is most vital when pursuing higher education and lack of it can cause the collapse of one’s future. Money is needed to buy textbooks and pay fees, which is very costly. First-year students at university tend to spend a lot of money when they first come to university since they do not understand the importance of money and they are not able to control their expenditure. Situations are improved when the student has been awarded a scholarship, since they might not have any source of income. Therefore, finance is another problem faced by first-year students. Being in a new environment, first-year students find themselves lost for a couple of days. Students face difficulty in finding their required rooms. Universities have a lot of lecture theatres and rooms in different buildings under different faculties. First-year students are unable to find their lecture rooms and are at times late for their lectures during the first few days. Tutorials and lab exercises also occur at different places and finding them using the room codes is very challenging for new students. Moreover, many new students do not know where to go for help or advice. Being new, students do not know whom to turn to for help. First-years find difficulty in signing up for labs and tutorials and have problems deciding on which session to select. Due to this, they end up missing classes due to clashes. This causes a drawback to their studies. As a conclusion, first-year students do face a lot of challenges at university regarding security, adjusting and being lost. These challenges are, and will be faced by first-year students since they are being introduced into a new system. Students must not be disheartened or give up on anything since life will become normal when they get used to the system. There is always a first time and no student will remain new for long, which also goes for the associated problems.

Wastewater reuse growing unprecedented populations and increasing pressure. The WritePass Journal

Wastewater reuse growing unprecedented populations and increasing pressure. Chapter 1 Wastewater Reuse: An Overview Wastewater reuse growing unprecedented populations and increasing pressure. Chapter 1 Wastewater Reuse: An Overview1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Introduction1.2  Ã‚  The Earth’s Water Resources1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Types of Water Reuse1.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Overview of Wastewater Treatment Technology1.1.1  Preliminary Treatment1.1.2  Ã‚  Primary Treatment1.1.3  Secondary Treatment1.1.4  Tertiary and/or Advanced Treatment1.1.5 Disinfection1.2  Ã‚  Types of Contaminants1.2.1  Ã‚  Pathogenic Organisms1.2.2  Ã‚  Inorganic Chemicals1.2.3  Ã‚  Organic ChemicalsChapter 2   Wastewater Reuse Criteria2.1   Introduction2.2   Wastewater Quality for Reuse Applications2.2.1    Wastewater Reuse for Agricultural Irrigation2.2.2   Wastewater Reuse for Industrial Use2.2.3    Wastewater Reuse for Recreational UseReferencesRelated Chapter 1 Wastewater Reuse: An Overview 1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Introduction Growing unprecedented populations and increasing pressure on the development of new water resources have prompted a variety of measures to reclaim, recycle and reuse wastewater over the last two or three decades. As part of this trend, some municipalities have commenced to reuse wastewater for non-potable water needs, such as irrigation of golf courses and parks. In a little but increasing number of municipalities, these measures involve the use of treated wastewater to augment the general water supply. A major catalyst for the development of wastewater reuse, recycling and reclamation has been the need to provide alternative water resources to achieve water quantity requirement for industry, irrigation, urban potable and non-potable water applications. The benefits coupled with reusing treated wastewater for supplemental applications prior to disposal or discharge include environmental protection, preservation of high quality water resources and economic advantages. These â€Å"wastewater reuse† projects are made possible by reliability and effectiveness of wastewater treatment technologies that can turn municipal wastewater into reclaimed wastewater that can serve as a supplemental water resource in addition to meeting standards established by the Safe Water Drinking Act. However, important problems remain regarding the levels of testing, monitoring and treatment needed to ensure human health when reclaimed wastewater is consumed for potable purposes. Some engineering and public health professionals oppose in principle to the reuse of wastewater for potable purposes, because standard public health philosophy and engineering practice call for using the purest source possible for drinking water.1 Others worry that existing techniques might not discover all the chemical and microbial contaminants that may be present in reclaimed wastewater. Several guidelines pertaining to potable reuse of wastewater have been issued, but these guidelines o ffer conflicting guidance on whether potable is adoptable and, when it is adoptable, what safeguards should be in place. 1.2  Ã‚  The Earth’s Water Resources Earth is known as the â€Å"Blue Planet† because water is discovered in many places on Earth including in the atmosphere, on the surface of the Earth and within rocks below the surface. The total volume of water on the planet is about 1,360,000,000 km3. About 71 percent of Earth’s surface is covered with water, and the oceans hold about 97 percent of all Earth’s water. Figure 1.1 illustrates the approximate distribution of the locations of water on Earth, of which only about 3 percent of the Earth’s water is classified as freshwater and only about 0.91 percent is discovered in freshwater lakes, swamps, rivers and groundwater supplies available for human consumption. Figure 1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Distribution of water in the hydrosphere. The water cycle or hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water within the hydrosphere. This indicates the cyclic movement of water evaporated from water surfaces, land surfaces and snow fields or evapotranspiration from land plants and animals to the atmosphere. Atmospheric moisture condenses into clouds and precipitated to the earth as rain, snow, hail or in some other form. Once the precipitated water has fallen to Earth, it may percolate through soil strata to form groundwater aquifers or runs off into streams, lakes, ponds and the sea. Groundwater and surface water drain toward the sea for recycling. Many sub-cycles to the global-scale hydrologic cycle exist, involving the managed transport of water, such as an aqueduct. Wastewater reuse, reclamation and recycling have become important elements of the hydrologic cycle in industrial, agricultural and urban areas. Figure 1.2 illustrates an overview of the cycling of water from ground water and surface water resources to water treatment plants, industrial, irrigation, municipal application, and to wastewater reclamation and reuse facilities. Figure 1.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Water reuse application. 1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Types of Water Reuse When considering the reuse of treated wastewater for potable purposes, critical distinctions must be made between â€Å"indirect† and â€Å"direct† potable reuse and between â€Å"unplanned† and â€Å"planned† potable reuse. The key distinction between indirect and direct potable reuse is that direct potable reuse does not make use of any environmental barrier. In other words, simply sending treated wastewater from a wastewater treatment facility directly to a potable water-supply distribution system or a potable source treatment facility. This practice is rarely use because of the increased potential risk to public health and the negative public perception. Indirect potable reuse is that the purified reclaimed water is pumped into a raw water supply, such as an underground aquifer or in potable water storage reservoirs, resulting in mixing, dilution and assimilation, thus providing an environmental buffer. Indirect potable reuse can be unplanned and planned. Unplanned indirect potable reuse occurs continuously in the environment. This results when a water supply has a natural source that contains unintentional addition of wastewater. Planned indirect potable reuse is common practice to artificially recharge water supply sources with reclaimed water derived from treated wastewater. The water receives additional treatment prior to distribution. The reason that indirect potable reuse is not considered to cause a health risk is that the treated wastewater benefits from natural treatment from storage in surface water and groundwater aquifer before abstraction to ensure good water quality. 1.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Overview of Wastewater Treatment Technology The problems surrounding wastewater reuse are essentially related to public health. Only in unusual situations do the substances in sewage significantly downgrade the value of water for other purposes. Many diseases are caused by organisms that may be present in wastewater. In addition, there are many toxic and carcinogenic substances present in wastewater at levels that may or may not be adequate to cause disease. The effective wastewater treatment technology to meet water quality requirements for wastewater reuse applications and to protect public health is a crucial element for wastewater reuse system. Conventional wastewater treatment consists of a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes and operations to eliminate solids, organic matter, pathogens, metals and sometime nutrients from wastewater.2 Common terms used to define different degrees of treatment, in sequence of increasing treatment level are preliminary, primary, secondary, tertiary and/or advanced treatment. In some regions, disinfection step for control pathogenic organisms sometimes follows the last treatment step. Figure 1.3 shows a generalized wastewater treatment diagram. Figure 1.3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Generalized flow diagram for conventional wastewater treatment 1.1.1  Preliminary Treatment The purpose of preliminary treatment is the removal of sands, solids and rags that would settle in channel and interfere with treatment processes. Removal of these materials is necessary to protect the operation of subsequent treatment units. Preliminary treatment of wastewater typically includes screening, grinding, grit removal, flotation, equalization and flocculation. Treatment equipment such as bar screens, comminutors and grit chambers are adopted as the wastewater first enters a wastewater treatment plant. In grit chambers, the velocity of wastewater through the chamber is retained sufficiently high, so as to avoid the settling of organic solids. Comminutors are sometimes used to supplement course screening and serve to decrease the size of particles so that they will be removed and disposed of in a landfill. 1.1.2  Ã‚  Primary Treatment Primary treatment is the second step in treatment and removes organic and inorganic matters from raw sewage by the physical processes. Primary treatment includes screening to trap solid matters, comminution for removal of large solids, grit removal and sedimentation by gravity to remove suspended solids. In general, about one-half of suspended solids and 20 to 50 percent of the biochemical oxygen demand are removed from the wastewater by primary treatment process. Nutrients, pathogenic organisms, trace elements and potentially toxic organic compounds that are associated with solids in wastewater can also be removed by primary treatment processes. 1.1.3  Secondary Treatment Secondary treatment systems remove the biodegradable dissolved and colloidal matter using an array of biological processes coupled with solid/liquid separation. Biological processes are engineered to provide effective microbiological metabolism of organic substrates dissolved or suspended in wastewater.2 Part of the organic matter is oxidized by the microorganisms, thereby producing carbon dioxide and other end products. The remaining organic matter in wastewater provides the materials and energy needed to sustain the microorganism community. Secondary treatment systems can remove suspended solids and up to 95 percent of the biochemical oxygen demand entering the process, as well as certain organic compounds and significant amount of heavy metals. 1.1.4  Tertiary and/or Advanced Treatment Tertiary and/or advanced treatment is adopted when specific constituents which cannot be removed by primary and secondary treatment must be removed. In general, tertiary treatment refers to additional removal of suspended material by granular medium filtration and chemical coagulation. In other cases, advanced treatment refers to more complete removal of specific constituents, such as ammonia or nitrate removal by ion exchange or total dissolved solids removal by reverse osmosis.2 These processes essentially remove more than 99 percent of all the pollutants from wastewater, producing an almost drinking water quality. 1.1.5 Disinfection The objective of disinfection in the wastewater treatment is to destroy all pathogenic microorganisms. The major groups of pathogenic microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, amoebic cysts and protozoa. In general, disinfection can be achieved by chemical or physical method that destroys pathogens. Chemical methods are based on the addition of a strong acid, alcohol or an oxidizing chemical (such as chlorine, ozone, hydrogen peroxide or bromine). Alternatively, physical methods might include heating, incineration and irradiation with ultraviolet radiation. Disinfection is frequently combined with treatment plant design, but not effectively practiced, because of the reduced effectiveness of ultraviolet radiation or the high cost of chlorine where the water is not sufficiently clear or free of particles. 1.2  Ã‚  Types of Contaminants An important issue for people to understand that there are various types of contaminants that may be in your water. The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water involve a wide spectrum of pathogenic organisms, inorganic chemicals and organic chemical. High concentrations of contaminants can have adverse effects to our health. 1.2.1  Ã‚  Pathogenic Organisms Bacterium in water, also known as pathogenic organism, is a public health hazard with risk factors in nearly all regions of the world. It is evident from the water purification attempts throughout history that human realized that drinking water could be hazardous. Several other infectious diseases can be transmitted by contaminated water. Bacterial diseases include Typhoid fever, Cholera, Shigellosis and Salmonellosis. Gastroenteritis, Hepatitis A and SARS are examples of viral disease. Parasitic diseases, such as Schistosomiasis, Ascariasis and Taeniasis, are also transmitted via water. 1.2.2  Ã‚  Inorganic Chemicals Wastewater contains many inorganics that present known or potential health risks if consumed. These contaminants include such compounds as lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic, nitrate and sulphate. Arsenic and lead are cumulative chemical poisons that can result in cancer, dermal lesions, peripheral neuropathies and vascular effects. 1.2.3  Ã‚  Organic Chemicals In a 1980 survey, a number of organic chemicals were found in water supplies. The term organic chemicals in this sense mean that they contain carbon atoms, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, aliphatic compounds, benzenes and phenols, which mean that they are derived from petroleum. Organic chemical can easily combine with human tissue which can cause damage that includes kidney, liver system problems and increased cancer risk. Chapter 2   Wastewater Reuse Criteria 2.1   Introduction The principal issue of concern for consumer of treated wastewater is the quality of this water includes its physical, biological, chemical and radiological characteristics. These concerns therefore necessitate the formulation of criteria, standards and guidelines that are appropriate for the consumers of this water.3 A first stage in establishing wastewater reuse regulations and guidelines is wastewater reuse criteria. Wastewater reuse criteria are principally directed at health and environmental protection and typically address wastewater treatment, reclaimed water quality, treatment reliability, distribution systems and use area controls.2 Wastewater reuse criteria imply an idea condition without a legal basic. Regulations and guidelines are different in that regulations are legally enforceable and spell out specific figures that can be used for enforcement and administrative action, which guidelines do not have legal basic and compliance is voluntary. In theUnited States, the Environment Protection Agency issued guidelines in 1992 that are intended to offer guidance to states, which have not developed their own regulations or guidelines. At the international level, the World Health Organization has developed guidelines for wastewater reuse in agriculture and aquaculture. The World Health Organization guidelines are adopted throughout the world and provide all countries with the necessary information to set their own wastewater reuse regulations or guidelines. 2.2   Wastewater Quality for Reuse Applications Table 2.1 presents general wastewater reuse applications. The types of wastewater reuse may be classified into the following six broad categories include agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial reuse, groundwater recharge, recreational and environmental, non-potable urban uses and potable reuse. Wastewater reuse can be employed to satisfy the water demand in various fields and contribute to the freshwater resources conservation. Table 2.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Categories of Wastewater Reuse and Potential Constraints Wastewater reuse categorya Potential constraints Agricultural and landscape irrigation   Ã‚   Crop irrigation Effects of salts on soils and crops.   Ã‚   Commercial nurseries Public health concerns, surface and groundwater pollution, marketability of crops, and public acceptance.   Ã‚   Parks   Ã‚   School yards   Ã‚   Freeway medians   Ã‚   Golf courses   Ã‚   Cemeteries   Ã‚   Greenbelts   Ã‚   Residential areas Industrial reuse   Ã‚   Cooling Scaling, corrosion, biological growth, and fouling; public health concerns.   Ã‚   Boiler feed   Ã‚   Process water   Ã‚   Heavy construction Groundwater recharge   Ã‚   Groundwater replenishment Potential toxicity of chemicals and pathogens.      Salt water intrusion   Ã‚   Subsidence control Recreational and environment   Ã‚   Lakes and ponds Health concerns and eutrophication.   Ã‚   Marsh enhancement   Ã‚   Streamflow augmentation   Ã‚   Fisheries   Ã‚   Snowmaking Non-potable urban uses   Ã‚   Fire protection Public health, foulinf, scaling, corrosion, and biological growth.   Ã‚   Air conditioning   Ã‚   Toilet flushing Potable reuse   Ã‚   Blending in water supply Potential toxic chemicals, public health, and public acceptance.   Ã‚   Pipe-to-pipe water supply a Arranged in descending order of anticipated volume of use. From Asano, T.D., et al., Water Environ. Technol., 4, 36, 1992. 2.2.1    Wastewater Reuse for Agricultural Irrigation By far the biggest user of wastewater is agriculture throughout the entire semi-tropical and arid tropical areas of the world. Agriculture receives 67 percent of total water withdrawal and account for 86 percent of consumption in 2000. In Asia and Africa, an estimated 85 to 90 percent of all the freshwater use is for agriculture. By 2025, agriculture is anticipated to increase its water demands by 1.2 times. Therefore, wastewater reuse is important for sustainable water management. The reuse of wastewater for agriculture has some benefits as well as some disbenefits.4, 5 Benefits include the following: Source of extra irrigation water. Conservation of freshwater for other beneficial uses. Low cost source of a water supply. Alternative way to dispose of wastewater and avoid pollution and sanitary issues. Dependable, continuous water source. Effective use of plant nutrients contained in the wastewater, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Provides extra treatment of the wastewater before being recharged to the groundwater. Disbenefits include the following: Wastewater not properly treated can cause potential public health issues. Hazardous chemical contamination of groundwater. Certain soluble constituents in the wastewater could be present at concentrations toxic to plants. The wastewater could contain suspended solids that may plug the capillary pores in the soil as well as block nozzles in the water distribution system. Great investment in equipment and land. Regulation, guideline and criteria have been established for the reuse of wastewater for agriculture and are normally based on several parameters, such as public health protection and concentration of components in the water. These components include salinity, boron, exchangeable ions and trace metals are of particular important. Table 2.2 presents the details of guidelines for water quality to be used for agricultural irrigation. These guidelines are established by the Food and Agricultural Organization in United Nation. I.   Salinity As indicated, salinity is the most influential parameter in determining the applicability of water for agricultural irrigation. Salinity refers to the presence of dissolved salts in the soil and water. Table 2.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Guidelines for Interpretation of Water Quality for Irrigation             Degree of restriction on use Potential irrigation problem Units None Slight to moderate Severe Salinity (affects crop water availability)a EC dS/m 0.7 0.7-3.0 3.0 or, TDS mg/L 450 450-2000 2000 Infiltration (affects infiltration rate of water into the soil. Evaluation using EC and SAR together)b SAR = 0-3 and EC = 0.7 0.7-0.2 0.2 = 3-6 and EC = 1.2 1.2-0.3 0.3 = 6-12 and EC = 1.9 1.9-0.5 0.5 = 12-20 and EC = 2.9 2.9-1.3 1.3 = 20-40 and EC = 5.0 5.0-2.9 2.9 Specific ion toxicity (affects sensitive crops) Sodium (Na)b   Ã‚   Surface irrigation SAR 3 3-9 9   Ã‚   Sprinkler irrigation mg/L 3 3 Chloride (Cl)c   Ã‚   Surface irrigation mg/L 4 4-10 10   Ã‚   Sprinkler irrigation mg/L 3 3 Boron (B) mg/L 0.7 0.7-3.0 3.0 Trace elements (See Table) Miscellaneous effects (affects susceptible crops) Nitrogen (NO3-N)d mg/L 5 5-30 30 Bicarbonate (HCO3) (overhead sprinkling only) mg/L 1.5 1.5-8.5 8.5 pH Normal range 6.5-8.4 a  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   EC = electrical conductivity, a measure of water salinity, report in deciSiemens per meter at 25 °C (dS/m) or in units millimhos per centimeter (mmho/cm). Both are equivalent. TDS = total dissolved solids, report in milligram/liter (mg/L). b  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   SAR = sodium adsorption ratio. At a given SAR, infiltration rate increases as water salinity increases. Evaluate the potential infiltration problem by SAR as modified by EC. c  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For surface irrigation, most tree crops and woody plants are sensitive to sodium and chloride; use the values shown. Most annual crops are not sensitive. With overhead sprinkler irrigation and low humidity (30%) sodium and chloride may be absorbed through the leaves of sensitive crops. d  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   NO3-N, nitrate nitrogen, reported in terms of elemental nitrogen (NH4-N and organic-N should be included when wastewater is being tested). From Ayers, R.S. and Westcot, D.W., FAO, 7, 11, 54, 69, 1976. There are two assessments that characterize the salinity of water involving measuring total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity. Total dissolved solids refers to the material left in a vessel after evaporation of a filtered water sample and subsequent placed in a drying oven at a defined temperature.6 The total dissolved solids concentration relates to the conductivity of the water. The total dissolved solid can be calculated by multiplying conductivity by a factor, but the factor is not a constant. A factor most often used in agricultural is 640. TDS (mg/L) = EC (mmho/cm or dS/m) Ãâ€" 640   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Electrical conductivity is other measurement that more useful than total dissolved solids because it can be made easily and instantaneously by irrigators in the field. Salts that are dissolved in water conduct electricity. Therefore, the salt in the water is related to the electrical conductivity. Table 2.3 presents general guidelines as to the salinity hazard, total dissolved solids (TDS) and electrical conductivity. Table 2.3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   General Guidelines for Salinity in Agricultural Irrigation Watera Classificationb    TDS (mg/L) EC (mmhos/cm)c Water for which no detrimental effects are usually noticed 500 0.75 Water that can have detrimental effects on sensitive crops 500-1000 0.75-1.50 Water that can have adverse effects on many crops, requiring careful management practices 1000-2000 1.50-3.00 Water that can be used for tolerant plants on permeable soils with careful management practices 2000-5000 3.00-7.50 a  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Normally only of concern in arid and semiarid parts of the country. b  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Crops vary greatly in their tolerance to salinity (TDS or EC). c  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   EC = electrical conductivity. Adapted from USEPA, Office of Water Program Operations, EPA-430/9-75-001, 1975. The adverse impacts of salinity can be augmented by a soil with poor characteristics (such as high evapotranspiration rates and poor drainage) that can indirectly affect the crop. The only way to control salinity hazard is by applying more water that carries off excess salt and leaches throughout the plant’s root zone. II.   Exchangeable Cations The concentration of exchangeable cations in irrigation water must be considered. The exchangeable cations include sodium, calcium and magnesium. When sodium concentrations are high, the soil permeability is reduced and the soil structure is affected. When calcium is normally the predominant exchangeable cation in soil, the soil tends to have a granular structure which is easily worked and readily permeable. The sodium adsorption ratio has been developed to assess the degree to which sodium in irrigation water and provide an indicator of its potential deleterious effects on soil structure and permeability. The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of water is defined to the equation below: where:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Na+  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = sodium Ca2+  Ã‚  Ã‚   = calcium Mg2+  Ã‚  Ã‚   = magnesium For irrigation water containing significant values of bicarbonate, the adjusted sodium adsorption ratio is sometimes used. The equation of adjusted sodium adsorption ratio (SARadj) is defined as follow: where:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   pK’2 – pK’c  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = empirical constants p (Ca2+ + Mg2+) = negative logarithm of the calcium and magnesium ion concentration in moles/liter p (ALK)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = negative logarithm of the total alkalinity in milliequivalents/liter For general crops, the tolerance value of SAR and adjusted SAR for irrigation water is 8 to 18. In fact, the calculated SAR values in the range are suitable for sensitive crops. III.   Boron Boron in treated wastewater is a potential hazardous ion for agricultural irrigation at high concentrations of around 1mg/L. The sources of boron in wastewater are normally from household detergents, industrial plants and sewage system where boron fertilizers are used. However, it must be remembered that boron is essential in crop productivity at low concentrations. Boron is also one of the important micronutrients for crops to obtain a high quality and quantity crop yield. As indicated, the deleterious effects for boron can happen on crop. Such effects are dependent on crop sensitivity to boron and boron concentrations in soil. A number of crops have been tested by experiment for boron sensitivity. The boron sensitivity of selected crops is listed in Table 2.4. Table 2.4  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Relative Tolerance of Crops and Ornamentals to Boron Tolerant Semitolerant Sensitive (4.0 mg/L of Boron) (2.0 mg/L of Boron) (1.0 mg/L of Boron) Athel Sunflower, native Pecan Asparagus Potato Walnut, black and Persian or English Palm Cotton, Acala and Pina Jerusalem artichoke Date palm Tomato Navy bean Sugarbeet Sweetpea American elm Mangel Radish Plum Garden beet Field pea Pear Alfafa Ragged-robin rose Apple Gladils Olive Grape (Sultanina andMalaga) Broadbean Barley Kadota fig Onion Wheat Persimmon Turnip Corn Cherry Cabbage Milo Peach Lettuce Oat Apricot Carrot Zinnia Thornless blackberry Pumpkin Orange Bell pepper Avocado Sweet potato Grapefruit Lima bean Lemon (2.0 mg/L of boron) (1.0 mg/L of boron) (0.3 mg/L of boron) Note:  Ã‚   Relative tolerance is based on the boron concentration in irrigation water at which boron toxicity symptoms were observed when plants were grown in sand culture. It does not necessarily indicate a reduction in yield. Tolerance decreases in descending order in each column. From Ayers, R.S. and Westcot, D.W., FAO, 7, 11, 54, 69, 1976. In United Nations, the Food and Agricultural organization issued guidelines for boron concentrations in irrigation water. The guidelines indicate that no issues will occur will occur for crops at boron concentration less than 0.75 mg/L. Between 0.75 and 2.0 mg/L of boron concentrations, increasing problem will exist, and severe problem happen at boron concentration above 2.0 mg/L. Table 2.5 presents the detailed guidelines for the allowable concentration of boron in treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation. Table 2.5  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Limits of Boron in Irrigation Water Permissible Limits (Boron in miligrams per liter or parts per million)    Crop Group Class of water Sensitive Semitolerant Tolerant Excellent 0.33 0.67 1.0 Good 0.33-0.67 0.67-1.33 1.0-2.0 Permissible 0.67-1.0 1.33-2.0 2.0-3.0 Doubtful 1.0-1.25 2.0-2.5 3.0-3.75 Unsuitable 1.25 2.5 3.75 From van der Leeden, F., Troise, F.L., and Todd, D.K., The Water Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1990, 466. Wastewater treatment systems are not efficient at removing boron unless some form of treatment is carried out, such as chemical precipitation. Some management options can also be adopted to degrade the toxicity of boron in treated wastewater and improve yields. These management options are engineered to provide additional nitrogen to maximize fertility of the soil. IV.   Trace Metals or Elements All wastewater sent to treatment plants contain trace elements. The source of trace element is usually from industrial plant, but wastewater from residences can also have high trace element concentrations. Trace elements normally occur in treated wastewater but at very low concentrations, usually less than a few milligrams per liter with most less than 100 micrograms per liter. Some trace elements are essential for plant and animal growth at low concentrations, but all can exhibit plant toxicity at elevated concentration. The essential trace elements in wastewater include cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel and zinc.7, 8, 9 The concentrations of trace elements in treated wastewater vary with wastewater treatment processes provided and their sources. Typically, the concentrations of trace elements in treated wastewater are in the range where negative effects are not likely to happen in short term. However, long term application of treated wastewater containing trace elements may lead to accumulation of trace elements in soil and may potentially result in groundwater contamination and plant toxicity. The range and recommended maximum concentrations of the trace elements in treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation are presented in Table 2.6. Table 2.6  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Recommended Limits for Constituents in Reclaimed Water for Irrigation7    Long-Term Use Short-Term Use    Constituent (mg/L) (mg/L) Remarks Trace Heavy Metals Aluminium 5.0 20.0 Can cause nonproductivity in acid soils, but soils at pH 5.5 to 8.0 will precipitate the ion and eliminate toxicity. Arsenic 0.10 2.0 Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 12 mg/L forSudangrass to less than 0.05 mg/L for rice. Beryllium 0.10 0.5 Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 5 mg/L for kale to 0.5 mg/L for bush beans. Boron 0.75 2.0 Essential to plant growth, with optimum yields for many obtained at a few-tenths mg/L in nutrient solutions. Toxic to many sensitive plants (e.g., citrus) at 1 mg/L. Usually sufficient quantities in reclaimed water to correct soil deficiencies. Most grasses relatively tolerant at 2.0 to 10 mg/L. Cadmium 0.01 0.05 Toxic to beans, beets, and turnips at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/L in nutrient solution. Conservative limits recommended. Chromium 0.1 1.0 Not generally recognized as essential growth element.   Conservative limits recommended due to lack of knowledge on toxicity to plants. Cobalt 0.05 5.0 Toxic to tomato plants at 0.1 mg/L in nutrient solution. Tends to be inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils. Copper 0.2 5.0 Toxic to a number of plants at 0.1 to 1.0 mg/L in nutrient solution. Fluoride 1.0 15.0 Inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils. Iron 5.0 20.0 Not toxic to plants in aerated soils, but can contribute to soil acidification and loss of essential phosphorus and molybdenum. Lead 5.0 10.0 Can inhibit plant cell growth at very high concentrations. Lithium 2.5 2.5 Tolerated by most crops at up to 5 mg/L; mobile in soil. Toxic at citrus at low doses recommended limit is 0.075 mg/L. Table 2.6 (continued)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Recommended Limits for Constituents in Reclaimed Water for Irrigation    Long-Term Use Short-Term Use    Constituent (mg/L) (mg/L) Remarks Trace Heavy Metals Manganese 0.2 10 Toxic to a number of crops at a few-tenths to a few mg/L in acid soils. Molybdenum 0.01 0.05 Nontoxic to plants at normal concentrations in soil and water. Can be toxic to livestock if forage is grown in soils with high levels of available molybdenum. Nickel 0.2 2 Toxic to a number of plants at 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L; reduced toxicity at neutral or alkaline pH. Selenium 0.02 0.02 Toxic to plants at low concentrations and to livestock if forage is grown in soils with low levels of added selenium. Tin, Tungsten, Titanium 2 2 Effectively excluded by plants; specific tolerance levels unknown. Vanadium 0.1 1 Toxic to many plants at relatively low concentrations. Zinc 2 10 Toxic to many plants at widely varying concentrations; reduced toxicity at increased pH (6 or above) and in fine-textured or organic soils. Other Parameters Constituent Recommended Limit Remarks pH 6 Most effects of pH on plant growth are indirect (e.g., pH effects on heavy metals toxicity described above). TDS 500-2000 mg/L Below 500mg/L, no detrimental effects are usually noticed. Between 500 and 1000 mg/L, TDS in irrigation water can affect many crops and careful management practices should be followed. Above 2000 mg/L, water can be used regularly only for tolerant plants on permeable soils. Free Chlorine Residual 1 mg/L The secondary treatment processes vary in their effectiveness at the removal of significant trace elements. However, advance treatment process such as carbon adsorption and chemical coagulation can remove over 90 percent of the trace elements from the wastewater. As indicated, some trace elements are toxic at elevated concentrations. Cadmium, copper and molybdenum can be hazardous to animals at concentration too low to affect crops. Cadmium is of special concern as it can accumulate in the food chain. It does not affect ruminants in the little amounts they ingest. Most beef and milk products are unaffected by livestock ingestion of cadmium as it is stored in the kidneys and liver of the animal rather than the muscle tissues or fat. Copper is not harmful to monogastric animals but can be toxic to ruminants. However, the animal’s tolerance to copper increases as available molybdenum increases. Molybdenum may also be hazardous when available in the absence of copper. While zinc and nickel are a lesser concern than cadmium, copper and molybdenum. They have negative effects on plants at lower concentrations than the levels harmful to plants and animals. However, zinc and nickel toxicities are decreased as the pH is increased. 2.2.2   Wastewater Reuse for Industrial Use Treated wastewater can be an important potential source of water for many industries, particularly in water-short regions. The quantity of water used in power generation and manufacturing processes is very large and the availability of unlimited of water was considered as a prerequisite. Wastewater reuse for industrial use has many potential applications, ranging from common housekeeping options to advanced technology implementation. The reuse of wastewater for industry can be adopted through industrial processes, internal recycling and non- industrial reuse of industrial facility effluent. The major industrial categories that use treated wastewater include:7 Evaporative cooling water, Boiler feedwater, Process water, and Irrigation and maintenance of plant grounds, fire protection, and dust control. Among the various industrial users of treated wastewater, cooling water is the greatest single application. All heat from various industrial processes must be removed and the most efficient coolant is water. The water can be a once-through recirculating cooling system or cascading use of cooling water in other applications. Water quality requirements for industrial applications are related to four different issues include scaling, corrosion, biological growth and fouling, which may affect industrial process efficacy and integrity, as well as product quality. These concerns are addressed by the options summarized in Table 2.7. Table 2.7  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Industrial Water Reuse: Concerns, Causes, and Treatment Options Concerns Causes Treatment options Scaling inorganic compounds,salts scaling inhibitor, carbon adsorption, filtration, ion exchange,blowdown rate control Corrosion dissolved and suspended solids pH imbalance corrosion inhibitor,reverse osmosis Biological growth residual organics, ammonia, phosphorous biocides, dispersants, filtration Fouling microbial growth, phosphates, dissolved and suspended solids control of scaling, corrosion, microbial growth, filtrationchemical and physical dispersants From Asano and Levine, 1998. Pathogens in treated wastewater used in industrial applications present potential health risks to workers and public from aerosols and windblown spray. Aerosols contain toxic organic compounds and bacteria, such as Legionella pneumophila, which causes Legionnaire’s disease. In recent years, the net quantity of water used has reduced sharply because water shortages and discharge regulations have made it necessary to treat it before disposing it away. A large quantity of this reduction is achieved by internal reuse. 2.2.3    Wastewater Reuse for Recreational Use The treated wastewater may serve a variety of recreational applications include swimming, boating and fishing. The appearance of treated wastewater is essential when it is used, and treatment for nutrient removal may be adopted. Without nutrient control, there is a potential issue for algae blooms, resulting in odors and eutrophic conditions. The criteria, regulations and guidelines of treated wastewater for recreational purposes will vary with the potential for human contact, as well as the sources of the secondary pollutants, such as body discharges, air contaminants and sewage. The criteria, regulations and guidelines of treated wastewater to be used for recreational applications can be subdivided into the following three groups. I.   Elementary Body Contact Recreational Water This group of treated wastewater used in situations where there is intimate contact between the human body and the water and where there is a potential risk of ingesting a large amount of water which may pose a health risk. The treated wastewater used for contact recreational purposes include swimming, waterskiing, bathing, etc. The methods of transmission of virus may happen due to ingestion of water or via the exposed mucous membranes and skin in protective ski barrier. Swimming pools have been implicated as the adenovirus pharyngitis and conjunctivitis, as well as enterovirus meningitis.10 Some of the diseases transmitted by swimming pool water are listed in Table 2.8. Table 2.8  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Some Diseases Transmitted by Swimming Pool Water Disease Causative agent Conjunctivitis Virus Sinusitis and otitis Streptococci and Staphylococci (propagated by nasal mucus) Certain types of enteritis Some pathogens or certain viruses ingested with water Skin disease:   Ã‚   Eczemas Koch bacillus   Ã‚   Granuloma Mycobacterium marinum   Ã‚   Epidermophytosis Brought about by the fungus that attaches itself to the skin between the toes and is contracted particularly easily when walking on areas around the pool. Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi Dysentery Entamoeba histolytica, Shigella Infectious hepatitis Virus Compiled from Reference 10 and 11. Normally, the criteria, regulations and guidelines of treated wastewater used that are adopted for this group are more stringent. For use in recreational applications where full body contact with the water is permitted, the water should be colorless, microbiologically safe and non-irritating eyes or skin. II. Secondary Body Contact Recreational Water This group of treated wastewater used includes fishing, boating, canoeing, camping, and golf course and landscape irrigation. Treated wastewater used for this category should not contain high levels of heavy metals or pathogens that accumulate in fish to degrees that pose health threat to the consumers. The recommended water quality criteria for body contact and secondary body contact are presented in Table 2.9. References 1    Committee to Evaluate the Viability of Augmenting Potable Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water, Water Science and Technology Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources, National Research Council, Issues in Potable Reuse: The Viability of Augmenting Drinking Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1998. 2    Takashi Asano, Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, Technomic Pub.,Lancaster,Pa., 1998. 3      Donald R. Rowe, Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid, Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, Lewis Pub., Boca Raton, Fla., 1995. 4      Shuval, H. I., Water Renovation and Reuse, Academic Press,New York, 1977. 5       Rowe, D. R., K. Al-Dhowalia, and A. Whitehead, Reuse of Riyadh Treated Wastewater, Project No. 18/1402, King Saud University, The College of Engineering Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1988. 6       USPHA, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 15th ed., American Public Health Association,Washington,D.C., 1980. 7       USEPA, Manual – Guidelines For Water Reuse, EPA/625/R-92/004, Office of Water, Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., September, 1992. 8         Ayers, R. S. and D. W. Westcot, Water Quality for Agriculture, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,Rome, 1976. 9         USEPA, Process Design Manual for Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater, EPA 625/1-77-008, E1, E2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., October, 1977. 10   WHO, Report of a WHO Scientific Group, Human Viruses in Water, Wastewater and Soil, TRS 639, WHO, Geneva, 1979. 11   Glossary Water and Wastewater Control Engineering, 3rd ed., American Public Health Association,Washington,D.C., 1981.

How to Use the Spanish Verb Faltar to Indicate Absence or Lack

How to Use the Spanish Verb Faltar to Indicate Absence or Lack Faltar carries with it the idea of lacking. But it is used in a variety of ways where to lack isnt the best translation. Here are some of its most common uses. Fast Facts Faltar typically is used to state that something is missing, lacking, nonexistent, or not available.An indirect object can be used to indicate who is affected by the lack or absence.Faltar is used much more flexibly than lack and other English equivalents, so a wide variety of translations is possible depending on the context. Faltar to Indicate Absence or Nonexistence Possible translations of faltar include to be absent and to be missing as well as a simple statement of nonexistence: A la reunià ³n faltaron los representantes de Ecuador. (The representatives of Ecuador were absent from the meeting. The representatives of Ecuador were not at the meeting.)La mujer faltaba de su hogar desde hace cuatro dà ­as y era buscada intensamente por sus familiares. (The woman was missing from her home since four days ago and was intensively searched for by her relatives.)El martes de la semana pasada, Sabrina faltà ³ a la escuela sin avisar a sus padres. (On Tuesday of last week, Sabrina missed school without telling her parents.) Faltar With Indirect Pronouns In many situations, faltar is used with an indirect-object pronoun to state who or what is affected by the lack or absence of something. In this usage, faltar functions much like gustar. The indirect-object pronoun is in boldface in the following examples. Although lack can almost always be used in translation, other possibilities include need, to be short and so on. As is the case with gustar, the noun represented by the indirect-object pronoun often serves as the subject of the sentence in translation. A esta receta le falta un ingrediente principal. (This recipe lacks a main ingredient.)Nos faltan dos personas para reservar el cuarto de hotel. (We need two more people to reserve the hotel room.)A este pobre le falta una pierna. (This poor man is missing a leg.)Sà ³lo me falta el telà ©fono. (Im missing only my telephone. I have everything I need except for my telephone.) ¿Cuntos puntos me faltan para llegar al nivel segundo? (How many points do I need to arrive at the second level?)Te falta estudiarlo un poco ms. (You need to study it a little more.)Hay 10 secretos que te faltarn saber de Guatemala. (There are 10 secrets you will need to know about Guatemala.)Me falta agua en el radiador. (I need water in the radiator.) Faltar to Indicate What Remains Somewhat paradoxically for English speakers, faltar is often used to indicate what remains in anticipation of an event or situation. The construction used in these instances typically is optional pronoun faltar what remains para the goal. Faltan cinco dà ­as para Navidad. (Five days remain until Christmas. There are five days to go until Christmas.)Faltaban dos segundos para terminar el juego. (There were two seconds to go to end the game.)Te faltan 100 pesos para comprarlo. (You need 100 pesos more to buy it.)A à ©l le faltaban tres horas para la medianoche. (He had three hours remaining until midnight.) Faltar A to Indicate Lack of Heed The phrase faltar a can be used to indicate the lack of attention or respect to the object of the preposition a. Es una promesa,  ¡y nunca falto a mis promesas! (Thats a promise, and I never break my promises!)Es tonto pensar que ella faltarà ­a a un evento como ese. (Its silly to think that she would not attend an event such as that.)La escritora jams faltaba a las reuniones de lunes. (The writer never missed the Monday meetings.) Expressions Using Faltar Expressions and phrases that use faltar include: Faltar al respeto, to be disrespectful. ¡Lo que faltaba! Its all I needed! ¡No faltarà ­a ms! Of course! Obviously! Dont mention it!Faltar a la verdad, to be dishonest.Faltar tiempo, to be short of time. Conjugation of Faltar Faltar is conjugated regularly, following the pattern of hablar. Etymology of Faltar As you might have guessed, is etymologically related to the English word fault. Both fault and faltar come from the Latin verb fallere, which meant to deceive or disappoint. Other Spanish words derived from fallere include fallar (to fail or disappoint), falla (defect), and falso (false). Related English words include fail, failure, and false.

The Al-Shabaab Terrorist Group Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

The Al-Shabaab Terrorist Group - Research Paper Example Al-Shabaab is a militant group composed of Islamist youth with a foundation in Somalia. Al-Shabaab, also referred to as the Mujahideen Youth Movement, was formally recognized by Somalia government in 2012. It is believed that Al-Shabaab is a Somali-based cell of the militant Islamist affiliate of al-Qaeda that controls the larger part of southern Somalia, where is has imposed its own form of Sharia. The number of members in Al-Shabaab militia was estimated to fourteen thousand, four hundred and twenty-six in May 2011. The quarrel between Al-Shabaab and Al-Qaeda over the union leadership caused the spread of Al-Shabaab; Al-Shabaab quickly lost their ground due to widespread disintegration. Members of the Al-Shabaab describe themselves as waging jihadists against non-Muslims whom they refer to as kufaars. The group is engaged in a constant combat against the Transitional Federal Government and the African Union Mission to Somalia. The motive of the Al-Shabaab is to eliminate foreign in terference in Somalia; they thus kidnap, intimidate and kill aid workers to accelerate the suspension of humanitarian operations and an exodus of relief agents. Al-Shabaab is one of the most dangerous groups of the time and it is raising concern throughout the world because of its merciless terrorist activities. Al-Shabaab was initially a representation of the hard-line militant youth that was within the Islamic Courts Union. Currently, Al-Shabaab is described as the extremist splinter group of the Islamic Courts Union.

The Influence of Technology on Contemporary Strategic Marketing Essay

The Influence of Technology on Contemporary Strategic Marketing Management Practices - Essay Example This essay also explores how strategic marketing management practices have been strengthened by conventional and latest information technologies. Examples from the health care organisation are used to support the arguments. An Overview Above all, it is important to consider the concept of ‘strategic marketing management’ to examine how technology has influenced marketing. As defined by Jobber (1998), strategic marketing management is â€Å"the approach a firm takes to securing and retraining profitable relationships with its customers.†2 It was demonstrated by Leverick and colleagues (1998) that numerous organisations have transformed their marketing strategies through the influence of technology.3 For instance, in the manner an organisation communicates with or approaches its customers and the way it carries out marketing activities. Technology, in particular, information technology (IT), helps an organisation build competitive advantage, enhance managerial outco mes, and attain more accurate and wide-ranging environmental scanning. As stated by Porter and Miller (1985), â€Å"the usage of IT enables companies to increase internal efficiency.†4 The application of information technology in marketing strategy has been talked about since the 1960s. Yet, it is only recently that strategic management has been gradually reinforced or remodelled by information technology5 (e.g. Internet marketing, database marketing, decision support systems (DSS), etc). Gaur and colleagues (2003) supports the earlier assumption that â€Å"the technological revolution is changing the nature and activities of the marketing function.†6 Traditional and emerging technologies allow the customer to communicate efficiently, directly, and openly with the marketers. By means of technology, companies are becoming increasingly informed about their customers in a more cost-effective way, which allows them to carry out direct marketing, particularly via interactiv e technology. According to Foskett (1996), the Internet has transformed marketing ‘from mass marketing to customised one-to-one marketing’7; the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) views e-marketing as a quantum leap for marketing because it facilitates genuinely customised and individualised marketing, availability of lower costs and the mass market for smaller companies.8 However, in the 1980s and 1990s, oversupply of information/data became a crucial problem. Data overload resulted in less accurate and appropriate management data. Technology created the groundwork for a better data management to work out this issue.9 Information technology provides ingenious processes of data gathering about customers’ needs, behaviour, and character. Examples of these data collection methods are online surveys or electronic mail surveys. Database methods, in addition to the Internet, have a considerable effect on strategic marketing as they help marketers refine outcomes i n seven major areas10: (1) understanding customers; (2) managing customer services; (3) understanding the market; (4) understanding the competitors; (5) managing sales operations; (6) managing marketing campaigns; (7)